The study, co-authored by Bangor University and Cranfield University, has been published in Nature Water.
The research from Bangor University, Cranfield University and partners, conducted across three informal settlements in Kenya, Peru, and South Africa, used smartphone-based surveys to regularly collect data on sanitation and health. This innovative approach allowed researchers to closely track the experiences of residents over time, providing one of the most detailed looks yet at CBS services in urban slums.
CBS systems use sealed, portable toilet containers that are collected, emptied, and cleaned regularly as part of a subscription-based service. Unlike traditional sanitation solutions that require heavy infrastructure, CBS offers a flexible and practical alternative for densely populated urban areas.
The study focused on three core areas, frequency of problems with different types of toilets, user satisfaction with CBS servicing, and the relationship between CBS service quality and residents’ wellbeing.
The key findings include:
- CBS users reported significantly fewer problems with their toilets compared to non-CBS users.
- Satisfaction with CBS services was high across multiple components, including collection and cleaning.
- Improved servicing of CBS systems was directly linked to higher sanitation quality of life for residents.
Lead author Dr Ben Exton (Bangor University) explained: “Working with such a rich dataset of hundreds of participants, surveyed regularly over a year across three countries, we demonstrate that container-based sanitation – especially when well serviced – can meaningfully improve sanitation-related quality of life for people living in informal settlements.
Project lead Dr Alison Parker (Cranfield University) said: “It has been a huge privilege to work with such dedicated researchers from around the world to reveal the potential that CBS has to provide a safe toilet for the billions of people that don’t have one.
Co-author Prof Simon Willcock (Bangor University & Rothamsted Research) said: “The study also revealed important differences between countries. In Kenya and Peru, where CBS toilets is provided through social enterprises supported by grants, users reported fewer problems and higher satisfaction compared to South Africa, where CBS toilets is provided free at scale by local authorities.”
Rémi Kaupp, Executive Director, Container Based Sanitation Alliance said: “I am delighted to see the results of this long-term, rigorous and multi-country study, with has shown an excellent way to understand how sanitation users really perceive their service.
“Besides highlighting the crucial role that container-based sanitation plays in ensuring continuous access in informal settlements, the study also shows the importance of professional sanitation operators to ensure residents enjoy uninterrupted and safe essential services.”
Overall, the findings highlight that while container-based sanitation is not a permanent replacement for sewered systems, it represents a transformative interim solution for improving health, dignity, and quality of life in the world’s most vulnerable urban communities.
